Hi Dsealer,
Probably easiest to split the different types into different mechanisms for capturing sound, and then different types of circuitry.
Mechanically speaking, you're going to run into three main types of microphone - Capacitor (condensers), dynamic, and ribbon.
Capacitors have a very delicate element and rely on a polarising voltage - Usually a phantom power supply.
They're generally very sensitive microphones with a strong output making them more susceptible to handling noise or air blasts, but also resulting in a lower gain requirement from the preamplifier that follows.
Dynamic microphones have a relatively heavy diaphragm with a coil attached. That coil is suspended in a magnetic field and its movement is what generates your voltage output.
These are generally less sensitive with a lower output and better suited to handling or very close proximity applications. That doesn't necessarily mean worse/not as good/low quality,
but often they'll be happier with a high gain preamplifier....60/70/80db.
For all intents, a dynamic microphone is a speaker connected to an input, rather than an output - Same mechanics.
With both capacitor and dynamic, you'll hear of small/medium/large diaphragm.
It is what it is - Just like small/medium/large speakers.
Each will have different characteristics.
For example large diaphragm dynamics (Re20/Md-421) tend to have have lower frequency response than small diaphragm (sm57).
Ribbon microphones follow a similar principle to dynamics but they suspend a thin band of foil/ribbon between two magnets.
These are often very rich and full in low frequency response, but can be very delicate when it comes to plosives or air blasts.
Of the three, these are probably the easiest to break.
Ribbons, broadly speaking, probably have the lowest output of three kinds and almost always benefit from a very high gain preamplifier.
A lot of people will have a preamp specifically for their ribbon mics.
These are generalisations - It is possible to find an active dynamic or ribbon microphone with some sort of amplifier built in.
They generally have their own custom power supply although, again, not a rule.
Tube/Transformer/Fet etc refers to the technology used in the microphone circuit.
Quite, or most, often dynamic microphones and ribbon microphones will not be active and, therefore, will not require a power supply.
Their output is straight from the element, much like a passive guitar pickup.
They may or may not use a transformer either to alter frequency response and tone, or simply to isolate from DC power.
You'll most often see
Tube/Fet with reference to capacitor microphones.
This is the same as you'll see tube or solid state guitar amplifiers - Two different methods of amplifying a signal. Each has pros - Each has cons.
Hope that helps to clear some things up for you.
Edit: Vacuum tube, tube, and valve are all the same thing.